托福阅读-事实信息题中的因果逻辑题
事实信息题是托福阅读中考查比重最大的题型之一。毫不夸张地说，对于任何一个分数段的学生来说，事实信息题的完成情况，就决定了阅读的得分情况。下面小编给大家带来托福阅读-事实信息题中的因果逻辑题 。
托福阅读-事实信息题中的因果逻辑题
笔者结合自己的教学经验先来说一下学生在做事实信息题过程中出现过一些“状态”：
1. 做题时间长。中国的考生遇到了事实信息题，不喜欢定位，而是喜欢习惯性的把相应的段落的从头至尾地读一次。阅读的信息较多，阅读时间长。而一场阅读托福考试的阅读量对于那些原本阅读速度就慢的学生来说，用这种思路做题，很有可能是做不完的。
如例1：OG: Applied Arts and Fine Arts
…Sculptures must, for example, be stable,which requires an understanding of the properties of mass ,weight distribution , and stress .Paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. In other words, the demands of the laws of physics,not the sculptor’s aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces(iron being much stronger than bronze) …
According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
A. they began using a material that made the statues weigh less
B. they found a way to strengthen the statues internally
C. the aesthetic tastes of the public had changed over time
D. the cannonballs added too much weight to the statues
在做这题时，学生要么从段首读到段尾，要么就从“For example, in the early Italian Renaissance”读到最后，事实上这样都读到了过多的信息，做题时间过长。
2. 被无关信息干扰。在笔者的教学经验中发现，中国考生在做题过程中，最容易冲动地选择一些含有原文中出现过的信息的选项，而这些选项往往跟题目并没有任何的关联性。根本原因就是考生喜欢不习惯定位，喜欢通读全段。这样一来，浪费时间是一方面，另外一方面，选错的可能性又增大了。
如例2：OG Online Exam: Lascaux Cave Paintings Q11
Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. Certainly a great art exists, and by its existence reveals that ancient human beings were not without intelligence, skill, and sensitivity.
According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
A. Keeping the paintings a mystery will increase their importance.
B. The artists hid their tools with great intelligence and skill.
C. Too many years have gone by since the images were painted.
D. Answering the question is not very important to scholars.
在做这个题目中，不少同学看到这一段非常短，于是索性从头读到尾，在各种纠结中选了各种选项。
3. 逻辑混乱，或忽视了逻辑关系。当然在托福阅读的教学过程上中，经过一定的引导，学生还是慢慢地学会去定位。尽可能地做到“提速与减负”，但是在这个过程中，学生们还是会做错。原因则在于，在题目中出现了一些逻辑关系，而学生则往往逻辑混乱，甚至是忽视了这些逻辑关系。如果利用好了这些逻辑关系，则能帮助学生更快的定位，更准确地找到答案。
再如例3：OG Practice Set 6: Swimming Machines: Q6
Paragraph 6: Because they are always swimming,tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. Accordingly,they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. In fact, tunas must swim to breathe.They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.
6. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
A. They lack a swim bladder.
B. They need to suck in more water than other fishes do.
C. They have large muscles for breathing.
D. They cannot open their mouths unless they are in motion.
这个题目就会因为逻辑混乱的问题，不少学生选择D。
其实只要学生观察这个题目的提问方式，我们还是能看出一些“门道”的：
1. According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
2. According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
3. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
仔细阅读这3 个事实信息题在提问方式方面的同性，不难发现，它们都在问because, why, 以及one of the reasons 等“原因”。那么，在教学过程中，我会把这一类专门问因果逻辑的事实题单独分出来，进行讲解。引导学生注意，题目在问“原因”，也就是答案必须是原因。有“原因”就会导致一个“结果”。“结果”就是题目。这样一来，学生就不难发现这样一个公式：“原因(答案)+ 结果(题目) = 原文某一因果逻辑关系的句群” 学生只要能利用“结果(题目)”回到文章中去定位，在定位词的附近找表示“原因”的逻辑关系词，也就能更快，更准地找到答案了。
当然课程进行到这里，我会加入一些学生活动，让学生先熟悉，或是回忆一些表“原因”的逻辑词，如：because/because of, result from, owing to/ due to,as a result of, since, for, attribute to, thanks to, so…that…等。再结合学生的基础补充一些隐性的因果逻辑词，如：when, if, unless…
回头来看一下之前的3 个题目
例1：OG: Applied Arts and Fine Arts
…Sculptures must, for example, be stable,which requires an understanding of the properties of mass ,weight distribution , and stress .Paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. In other words, the demands of the laws of physics,not the sculptor’s aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze) …
According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
A. they began using a material that made the statues weigh less
B. they found a way to strengthen the statues internally
C. the aesthetic tastes of the public had changed over time
D. the cannonballs added too much weight to the statues
利用“ sculptors … stopped using cannonballs…” 定位到“the cannonball quickly disappeared”这一句话，在这个关键词的附近找到了“when” 这个表“原因”的隐性逻辑词，只要仔细阅读when 后面的信息“when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze)”便能快速确定答案为B，而不是在阅读了整段后，浪费了大量的时间后，还在思考，到底是B还是似乎原文中也提到的D?
例2：OG Online Exam: Lascaux Cave PaintingsQ11
Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. Certainly a great art exists, and by its existence reveals that ancient human beings were not without intelligence, skill, and sensitivity.
According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
A. Keeping the paintings a mystery will increase their importance.
B. The artists hid their tools with great intelligence and skill.
C. Too many years have gone by since the images were painted.
D. Answering the question is not very important to scholars.
例2 中， 学生利用“questions about the paintings never be answered” 定位到“there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images”， 在附近找表“ 原因” 的逻辑词：“so… that…”，“so…”后面接原因，从而得出答案应该选择与原文“so much time has passed”意思一致，与时间相关的C 选项。而定位词后出现的逻辑“but”引导的信息点，也就是类似于A选项的信息也因为逻辑不对而被排除。
例3：OG Practice Set 6: Swimming Machines:Q6
Paragraph 6 : Because the yare always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. Accordingly, they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. In fact, tunas must swim to breathe. They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.
6. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
A. They lack a swim bladder.
B. They need to suck in more water than other fishes do.
C. They have large muscles for breathing.
D. They cannot open their mouths unless they are in motion.
最后， 例3 中， 用“constant motion” 学生往往会定位到2 处位置，第一处：“Because they are always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills.” 第二处：“They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.”题目问的是：“导致金枪鱼constant motion 的原因是什么”, 所以重点看表示原因，也就是“since”后面的信息，就能得出A，而原文中第一句话则是说，always swimming (constant motion) 导致了一个结果：“金枪鱼打开他们的嘴巴”，也就是让学生纠结的D 选项犯了逻辑上的错误，即使这个选项中包含了原文中的信息，应该果断被排除。
以上便是我的教学过程中，在讲解事实信息题过程中，用到一些思路与方法。
托福阅读之把握句间的因果关系详解
托福想要拿高分除了积累大量词汇和理解长难句之外， 把握句间关系也是非要重要的。
阅读部分考生需要掌握的四大结构，他们分别是：
? classification
? comparison/contrast
? cause/effect
? problem/solution
以最后一个“问题/解决方法”为例来感受下官方指南上的要求是如何体现在托福考试的练习题中的。
官方放出的练习题中有一篇讲到“罗马军队对不列颠的影响”。其倒数第二题为一道句子插入题。被插入句是这样的:“One solution was to keep them busy as sources of labor.”这句话的开头“solution”一词暗示着前文定会提到需要解决的”problem ”，而这一线索也成为答对这道题的关键。这类题目背后的考点本质上就是对句间关系的把握。正所谓题型在变，关系不变。
所以，本文以官方指南为基础，结合真实考试要求，重点分析阅读考试中三大句间关系，希望对正在备考中的学子们有所启发。
句间关系1——因果关系
(涉及的托福阅读题型有：细节题/修辞目的题/推理题/句子插入题)
因果关系在整个托福阅读中的出镜频率非常高;曾有一个统计，在托福给出的官方练习题中，细节题中考察到因果关系的比例高达三分之一。所以，无论是从考试的角度，还是提高阅读力本身，掌握因果关系在句子之间的体现都是非常重要的。
以很多学生们非常熟悉的一篇文章“The origin of theaters”为例。有一道细节题问到考生为什么人们会逐渐放弃当时的“rituals”;在定位词出现的句子中，我们会非常容易看到句子开头有一个短语叫做“as a result ”;根据题目要求，答案的出处应该就在前一句话中。而只要能够认识“detached“这个单词，考生还是能比较顺利地选出正确答案。
类似于“as a result ”这样具有因果关系提示的词组还有很多，写作的时候也能派上用场，所以提醒各位考生一定要踏实地做好积累。比如“attribute X to Y”这个短语在官方练习题中就出现过三次，并且都是决定考生是否能读懂文章的必备词汇。
托福阅读能力如何全面提高
一、问题形式
被考的文章中有一个词或词组被加亮，这个词通常是一个代词或名词。指代题的形式如下：
The word (or phrase) X in the passage refers to
二、解题步骤
1.根据解题技巧确定答案
2.代入原文验证，看语义、逻辑和语法上是否通顺
三、基本原则
1.就近指代
所谓就近指代，就是被指代对象通常在指代词前不远处，如本句或上一句中。有时也出现在更前面的一句中。例如，
Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. The killing of birds of prey by wind turbines has pitted environmentalists who champion wildlife protection against environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy. Researchers are evaluating how serious this problem is and hope to find ways to eliminate or sharply reduce this problem.
The phrase this problem in the passage refers to
interference with the flight patterns of migrating birds in certain areas
building ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines
the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines
meeting the demands of environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy
本题涉及的是一个词组this problem.寻找这一词组的指代对象时只需向上搜索就行。根据就近原则，前一句中的主语the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines可以初步确定为答案。将其代入原文，符合语义和逻辑，因此第三个选项为正确答案。第一个选项和第三个选项都和this problem相距较远，而且代入时语义和逻辑上不通，因此为干扰选项。
2.数格一致
被指代对象通常与指代词在数(如单数或复数)和格(主格或宾格)两方面相同。如单数代词one指代单数名词，复数代词they指代复数名词。
四、主要思路
1.主从复合句中的指代
在主从复合句中，第二句的代词主语经常指代第一句的名词主语。例如，
The fins are stiff, smooth, and narrow, qualities that also help cut drag. When not in use, the fins are tucked into special grooves or depressions so that they lie flush with the body and do not break up its smooth contours.
The word they in the passage refers to
qualities
fins
grooves
depressions
在这一例子中，从句so that they…中的代词主语they指代主句的名词主语the fins，因此第二个选项为正确答案。
如果主从复合句中一个句子(可以是主句，也可以是从句)使用被动语态，包含被动语态的句子中的主语常指代另一句中的宾语。例如，
Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction.
The word none in the passage refers to
food
plant or animal
energy
big body
在本例中，if引导的从句使用了被动语态，代词主语none指代前面主句中的宾语energy.因此，第三个选项为正确答案。
2.并列动词中的指代
如果一个句中有两个并列的动词，第二个动词的代词宾语经常指代前一个动词后的名词宾语。例如，
Artists are recognizing the distinction between public and private spaces, and taking that into account when executing their public commissions.
The word “that” in line 27 refers to
(A)contemporary art
(B)opportunity
(C)audience
(D)distinction
句中有两个并列的动词recognizing和 taking (into account)，其中recognizing的宾语是distinction，而taking 的宾语是that.根据上述技巧，that指代distinction.因此，(D)为正确答案。
3.平行结构中的指代
平行结构主要包括some/most/many/such/each…, others…; not only…but also…; the former…the latter等。在这种结构中，平行结构两个部分的两个代词经常指代同一对象：前一句中的名词主语。例如，
In Southwest France in the 1940s, playing children discovered Lascaux Grotto, a series of narrow cave chambers that contain huge prehistoric paintings of animals. Many of these beasts are as large as 16 feet (almost 5 meters). Some follow each other in solemn parades, but others swirl about, sideways and upside down.
The word others in the passage refers to
chambers
paintings
beasts
parades
原文包含平行结构some…others，它们都指代前一句中的名词主语beasts，因此第三个选项为正确答案。
4.所有格的指代
所有格代词经常指代其前面与其最接近的名词。例如，
Folk-made objects give way to their popular equivalent, usually because the popular item is more quickly or cheaply produced, is easier or time saving to use, or lends more prestige to the owner.
The word “their” in line 1 refers to
(A)folk
(B)nations
(C)countries
(D)objects
根据所有格指代的解题技巧，their指代前面位置最近的名词objects，因此(D)为正确答案。
5.指代的接力棒现象
这一现象是指被考的代词对应前面一个相同的代词，而前面的代词指代更前一句中的名词。例如，
While such interviews can be highly entertaining, they are not necessarily an accurate indication of public opinion. First, they reflect the opinions of only those people who appear at a certain location.
The word “they” in line 8 refers to
(A)North Americans
(B)news shows
(C)interviews
(D)opinions
在这一例子中，第二句中的代词they(reflect the opinions…)对应第一句中的they(are not…)，而第一个they指代前面从句中的名词主语interviews，那么第二个they也指代interviews，因此(C)为正确答案。
除了上述情况之外，其他指代，如定语从句中(of which…, in which…, from which…)的关系代词指代先行词，from there结构中的there指代前面最接近的地点名词等，限于篇幅，不再详述。
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