毕业英语论文范文
毕业英语论文范文
毕业论文(设计)质量是衡量高等职业院校办学成果最为重要的依据之一,也是评价一个学生综合素质的重要标尺。下面是小编为大家推荐的毕业英语论文范文，供大家参考。
毕业英语论文范文范文一：商务英语毕业论文
Implication of Cultural Differences on International Business Negotiations
Abstract
Business negotiations under different cultural conditions are cultural negotiations. With the development of economic globalization and frequent business contacts， cultural differences have
become very important. If they are neglected， they could cause unnecessary misunderstanding， or even undermine the result of business negations. Therefore， it is of great significance to know different cultures of different countries as well as ways to avoid cultural conflicts in the context of international business negotiations. The paper begins with the definition of culture， analyzes the causes of cultural differences and explains the impact of cultural differences on international business negotiations from three perspectives of communication process， negotiation style and values concept. Finally， it analyzes effective ways to deal with the problem arising from cultural differences in the negotiation process. The paper stresses that in business negotiations between different countries negotiators should accept the other party's culture， try to make him be accepted and make a correct evaluation with help of effective communications. In a word， for successful cultural negotiations， cultural differences need to be perceived， accepted and most importantly played down.
Key words:culture cultural difference business negotiation impact
Contents
1. Cultural difference…….………..……...…………………………...…......4
1.1 The definition of culture……………………………………..............….....4
1.2 The causes of cultural differences……………………………..………......4
1.2.1 Geographical differences………………………..………………....….....4
1.2.2 Ethnic differences…………………………..………………....................4
1.2.3 Political differences…………………………..………….………….…...4
1.2.4 Economic differences…………………………………..….……….…....4
1.2.5 Religious differences……………………………………..………….......4
1.2.6 The concept of difference…………………………………...……….......5
1.3 Importance of international business negotiations on Cultural differences…………………………………………………………….…..5
2. Cultural differences on the impact of international business negotiations…………………………………………………..………...........5
2.1 Communication process……………………………...…...……...…....…..5
2.2 Negotiating style…………………...…..……..……………...……….…...8
2.3 Values………………...…………....….……..…………………….......…..8
2.3.1 Ethics………………………………………..……..………………...…..8
2.3.2 Sense………………………..……………………………..……….…. ...8
2.3.3 Concept of Collective…………………………………………………....8
2.3.4 Concept of time……………………………………………………….....8
3. How to deal with international business negotiations and cultural differences……………………..…………………………………………........9
3.1 To learn more about the former in the negotiations of the cultural differences that may arise………...…………………..……………….…..9
3.2 In the negotiations necessary to correctly handle the cultural differences………………………………………………………………...9
3.3 Negotiations to do a good job of follow-up for the exchange of cultural differences…………...…………………………………………......……10
4. References…………………...………….………………………….……....11
Business negotiation in interpersonal relationships as a special form， relate to different geographical， ethnic， social and cultural exchanges and contacts， which have taken place in cross-cultural negotiations. In cross-cultural negotiations， the different geographical， ethnic， cultural differences will affect the thinking of those negotiations， the negotiation style and behavior， thus affecting the entire negotiation process. Therefore， to engage in business activities， especially for the cross-border business activities must understand and master the links between different cultures and differences. Conducting negotiations with the organization， also have to understand that cultural differences impact on the negotiations， only the face of such a positive impact on the desired objectives can be achieved
1. Cultural differences
1.1 the definition of culture
National culture is a country-specific concepts and value systems， which constitute the concept of people's lives and work behavior. The nations of the world as a result of specific historical and geographical and gradually formed its own unique cultural traditions and cultural patterns. As the difference of Chinese and Western traditional customs， values， religious beliefs ， different ways of thinking， etc， making the different performance of Chinese and Western cultures.
1.2 the causes of cultural differences
Cultural diversity caused by many reasons， To sum up， the main source of cultural differences are in the following areas:
1.2.1 geographical differences
Refers to the geographical differences in different geographic regions due to the geographical environment， the level of economic development and traditional differences in habits， people often have different language， lifestyle and hobbies. And these will affect their behavior. For example， the West and the American people in some countries treat Christmas important， but in areas such as near the equator do not have snow all the year round， the people of some African countries may not have the concept of Christmas because the best modified Christmas is snow， as to the people in the region that are not long-term snow ，there is little concentration of Christmas than American States.
1.2.2 national differences
Ethnic differences is the different ethnic groups in the development of long-term process， the formation of their own language， customs and preferences， habits. Their diet， clothing， accommodation， festivals and rituals， such as material and cultural life of their own characteristics. Take the history of our country and our Hun Han， the Xiongnu people are valiant， characteristics of typical nomads. And we tame the Han character， the typical characteristics of farming nation. Which led to the Huns in the diet， clothing， accommodation， festivals and rituals， such as material and cultural life are different with Han.
1.2.3 the political differences
Political differences are due to the political system and the policies and regulations on people's behavior with the role of a standardized， so that all peoples in the political aspects on the concept of the existence are differences. Take the United States and France as example， the United States by the Constitution the powers of the President of the severe restrictions on the two major powers with other institutions of Congress and the Supreme Court of strong constraints. While France also had to set was ready to royalist restoration of the monarchy of the Third Republic to amend the Constitution a little further expand the powers of the president.
1.2.4 economic disparities
Economic differences are result of the economic factors of a reflection of cultural differences. For example， the people in the Western developed countries are rich lives and high level of education， people will pay more attention to the quality of life， security means more generally. And economic backwardness of the Third World， people care more about food and clothing.
1.2.5 religious differences
Religion is the development of human society to a certain stage of historical phenomenon， Religion has its own (Catholic) Major epidemic in Western Europe and South American; Islam is the scope of the whole of the Middle East and North Africa. Buddhism is more prevalent in Asian countries. The world has three major religions: Christianity， Buddhism and Islam. Christian (Protestant) is major epidemic in Northern Europe， North America and Australia; people in many parts of Asia believe in Buddhist. Different religions have different cultural tendencies and precepts， which affect the way of people understand things， codes of conduct and values.
1.2.6 the concept of Values difference
Values are means of objective evaluation criteria of things. It includes the concept of time， wealth， the attitude towards life， the attitude to risk and so on. Different societies’ people to the same things and problems will come to different and even opposite conclusions.
Geographical differences， ethnic differences， political differences， economic differences， religious differences and differences in concepts have the impact on people's penetration in the food， clothing， accommodation， festivals and rituals， such as material and cultural life in all its aspects. Thus affecting people's behavior， values， religious beliefs and modes of thought have a lot of difference， Finally has formed the various countries and areas of cultural differences.
1.3 cultural differences on the importance of international business negotiations
Practice in the negotiations， many negotiators often do not understand， or took note of the cultural importance of the significant impact on negotiations. Negotiating parties for foreign culture， some negotiators may have noticed some of the other negotiations， "different" or "hard to understand" the concrete manifestation of negotiations， but that is not important. Some people blindly believe that negotiation is the use of foreign-related facts and figures to speak， and the facts and data are common. Similarly， some foreign countries’ negotiators to negotiations with each other to maintain harmonious relations， they will notice the similarities between both cultures， while ignoring their differences. Let's look at an example.
In 1992， negotiators from China and other 12 experts of different professions to form a delegation to the United States purchases about 30 million U.S. dollars of chemical equipment and technology. The US naturally does everything possible to satisfy them. One of them is negotiations in the first round of the delegation sent to each of them a small souvenir. The Souvenirs packaging is very particular is a beautiful red box， red for advanced. But when the delegation was pleased to open the box when face-to-face in accordance with the Americans， Everyone's face appears very not the nature actually--there is a golf cap， but the color is green. American businessman's intention is: after signing the contract， and everyone to play golf. But they don’t know the "be a cuckold" is the biggest taboo in Chinese men. Finally the delegation did not sign the contract， not because the Americans "insult" people， but because they work careless， and even don’t know the common sense that Chinese men taboo "be a cuckold". How can we feel free to tens of millions of dollars project to them? It can be seen that the failure of the Americans negotiation is due to they do not understand the Chinese culture.
From the above examples， we can learn in business negotiations， if we do not attach importance to each other's cultural differences， the negotiations are likely to lead to failure.
2. Cultural differences on the impact of international business negotiations
The impact of culture on negotiations is extensive and profound， and different cultures will naturally divided people into different groups， this region， the difference between their respective groups are bringing people of different cultural groups tend to alienate each other; On the other hand， different cultural communication and exchanges between people are also obstacles. Therefore， the requirements of the negotiators to accept each other's culture， but also by cultural differences， unmistakably reveals that the purpose of understanding of each other's behavior， and they have been accepted by the other party， and ultimately reach a consensus agreement.
Overall， the impact on culture negotiations are in following several aspects:
2.1 the communication process
Cultural differences on the communication process of the negotiations， first of all is the performance of the communication language in the negotiation process. Language is a bridge of any country， any region and any nation. States companies， individuals to conduct business negotiations， we must first have the language to this. The differences language of international business activities is the most direct and clear. Such as China's "white elephant" brand batteries， to the English "White Elephant" it would cause bad associations.
Because the "White Elephant" In addition to the name of animals that have two meanings: "The owner did not use， but may be useful to others; do not reuse things." Solve the language problem is very simple， you can hire a translator or use a common third language to talk. While the negotiators of the language used in a variety of cultures with higher fitness， but no matter what， the difference is obvious. Such as Japan， Brazil and France Culture， the Japanese style of business communication is the most polite， more positive commitment to the use of recommended and guarantees， and less use of threats， commands and warnings of freedom of speech， their manners of speech style， The most prominent is that they do not often use "no"， "you" and facial gaze， but to maintain a period of silence; Brazilian businessmen to use "no" and "you" at the higher frequency， their negotiation style seems more presumptuous， and it seems not lonely in the negotiations， to gaze at each other and touch each other from time to time; French businessmen negotiating style is all the most presumptuous， in particular， their use of threats and warnings at the highest frequency， in addition， they are still very frequent use of interrupted， facial gaze， as well as "no" and "you". It can be seen， only to clarify these differences that can avoid the reticent Japanese， Brazilian over enthusiasm or the French’s misunderstanding of the threat， which achieved the success of international business negotiations.
Cultural differences impact on the negotiation process not only in the process of language communication， but also in the process of non-verbal communication. Cultural differences will lead to different countries or regions in the body language of negotiations， the use of action language significantly different， or even the same language of action is diametrically opposed to the transfer of information. For example， the vast majority of countries are in favor of nod his head for agree. But in India， Nepal and other countries that are certainly shaking his head， that is， shaking his head and smiling， that is positive meaning， some people just do it diagonally on the rise is still a good way， some people are a population frequency said "You are right! You are right!" but a continuously shaking his head， often make others do not know its true psychological and full of doubt. But negotiators shape， movement， language， awareness and use of the differences， also create an obstacle for the negotiations in communication.
Cultural differences also can lead to the negotiators of the differences in communication. People of different cultures have their preferences and habits of communication and cross-cultural negotiations in the negotiating parties often belong to different cultures， have their own customary means of communication. Accustomed to different means of communication between the parties to conduct a more depth in communication， often cause a wide range of issues. From countries with a high culture of the negotiators and those from countries with low culture of the negotiators may be in different ways of expression during the negotiation process. From countries with a high culture of the negotiators may be chosen euphemism， indirect ways to express their meaning. While from low culture of the negotiators preference for using oral expression to negotiate， direct or receive a clear message， straightforward means to express themselves. These two negotiators from different cultures during the negotiations， the party think the other side is often too rough， while the other may think that the other side lack of good faith in negotiations， or misunderstanding the silence of each other's conditions for its approval.
2.2 the negotiation style
The negotiation style is the main bearing and the attitude which displays in the negotiations activities. the style of negotiations in the course of negotiators’ behavior， conduct and control of the negotiation process of the method and means. Negotiators negotiations Style with a deep cultural stigma. Culture not only determines the Ethics Code of Ethics for negotiators， but also affects the way of thinking negotiators’ behavior and personality， so that make the negotiators of different cultural backgrounds form a very different style of negotiation. Negotiating style of the negotiation process for the negotiations between the two sides approach the relationship， contacts， and even the structure of the negotiations has a direct impact.
Adhere to cultural differences， negotiating styles can be divided into two types: the negotiation style of Oriental and Western style negotiations. Oriental style is based on negotiations as the background of oriental culture of Asian countries negotiation styles， with Japan， South Korea for a typical representative:
Japanese business men are conservative， attention to status-oriented， credit and the initial cooperation， co-dependent relationship between stress and good at negotiating. Japanese attached great importance to the negotiations in the transaction to establish harmonious interpersonal relationships. If there had been contacts with Japanese， before the negotiations should be recall the past exchanges and friendship between the two sides， which will be beneficial to the next negotiations. They did not support and habit the direct， purely commercial activities. If it is the first time to establish trade relations with Japanese， the party responsible for higher status in charge visits in opposite party enterprise at the same level status person in charge is extremely important， it attached great importance to Japanese companies and the trading relationship with you. When negotiations with Japan， it’s the best to send staff rank and status at high-level than the other side. This will facilitate the conduct of the talks. It should also be noted that Japanese women's status in society is lower， generally they not allowed to participate in the operation and management of large companies activities， the Japanese are also in a number of important occasions of non-female. Therefore， when encountered formal negotiations generally not appropriate to allow women to participate in， or else they may be skeptical， and even expressed dissatisfaction.
Korean character stubborn， often stuck to their own views in the negotiations and will not easily compromise. In this case we must grasp the strategy， it is necessary to adhere to argue， but also common sense to master a certain sense of propriety， and sometimes also need to be patient. On the other hand， South Korea in the negotiations seldom to express the views directly， often need the other side to try to figure out， in order to accurately understand the meaning of each other， South Korea may ask the same question repeatedly， so that when making decisions to ensure the correctness. And South Korea signed a contract does not mean that their success will not be changed， for other reasons they would seek to amend or re-start negotiations with you.
Western-type style of negotiation is based on Western culture of Europe and the United States as the background style of negotiations. The main representatives are the United States and United Kingdom.
Americans often talk about "Business is Business" (business to the business) means doing business need to not recognize one's own closest relatives， insist on the principle of things not for people. "Time is money"， "money is everything" is the unswerving credo of American. Their business activities is often straightforward， be anxious for success， business came straight to the point， they always picking up the phone to talk， sit down and get straight to the point， They calculate the progress by the hour and the number of days， their opponents often feel pressure from them. American businessmen do not like the use an agent or participate in negotiations with the consultant， give others the impression that they can say on behalf of the company. They like to sit down to do business immediately. In addition， the United States businessmen attached great importance to economic benefits， they have a slang called: "Bang for Buck"， that is， with minimum capital investment to obtain the greatest benefit.
British merchants engaged in commercial activities pay more attention to informal traders than other countries in the world， but also more conservative. Even today， the world has entered the electronic information age， in the UK by telephone to talk about business is unacceptable. British businessmen are more willing to make full preparations in advance， and then face-to-face talks. As long as they do not believe that the details of a settlement will not solve， they will never sign， all must have to do as rule. As a result of the British very great importance to the position， the title is also very important to them. Therefore， the selection status of the person as a broker of highly influential business， political forces and the role of trade unions in the business also can not be neglected.
Of course， it also must pay attention to the actual negotiations process， although the same cultural background of the negotiators， the talks there was a clear difference， but subject to sub-culture， as well as other factors， the same cultural background of individual negotiators， the negotiations style can be very different.
2.3 Cultural values
Cultural values is measure the consequences of people's behavior and standards. They affecting the way of people understanding the problems and will give rise to a strong emotional impact. In different cultures， values will be very different. Culture in a very appropriate behavior in another culture may be seen as immoral. For example， Americans believe that nepotism is immoral， however it as an obligation at the majority of Latin American culture. Therefore， the Understanding of a certain society in popular as well as these ideas in the personal behavior the degree which respects is very important. Our discussions here will focus on those activities is essential to understand the socio-economic values， more specifically， is these for promote the cross-cultural communicative competence and the values is worth noting.
2.3.1 Ethics
China has heavier ethics. "Acquaintance" and "relationship" has its own special meaning and significance， once the relations have been established， the two sides have become acquaintances or friends， and generous concessions to help the situation appear， and the degree of trust and tolerance will be improved， so the Chinese people have more oral agreement. Americans is not the case， they do not pay attention to cultivating the feelings of both sides， and attempts to separate business and friendship. To deal with the problem， often used the legal means， lawyers come forward to solve the problem is common， it is flexible and not rigid， we should clearly recognize this point. However， once sign the contract， they are very much focused on the legal contract， the performance of the contract is higher. The Chinese delegation to the West， maybe a long time no one could entertain， and this misunderstanding of the people are not interested in their visit; Europeans come to China， No matter what they do may find that there are people who accompanied， and this misunderstanding of the people lack of trust in them. Of foreign visitors， a senior care too much， not to mention dinner， often mistakenly believe that this expressed his company's products or have a preference， this in fact is the Chinese hospitality， This can lead to subsequent disappointment， and even complain.
2.3.2group awareness
In the course of the Chinese and Western cultural traditions and different cultural values， on the negotiations issues tend to have a confrontation or misunderstanding. China's national character has a very remarkable phenomenon， that is Settles on the face or the dignity. At the negotiating table， if make a choice from "decent" and "interest"， both the Chinese people will often choose to "decent." Why do the Chinese people want to save face at all costs? Because of the ideological core of Chinese culture is a group consciousness. In accordance with the sense that each one is not a separate person， but living in a certain social relations， and no face will not the face of others， there is no face on the people and will not be able to live in the social and group life， and may even be abandoned by society and the groups. But not like Westerners， they value the interests of negotiations， they will not hesitate to choose interest from "decent" and "interest" of the two. Chinese people regarding negotiations result whether can bring honor for their face， looks extremely important， as well as some Western negotiators in their works cautioned China in the talks， we must note that use of China's national character. It is clear that only a correct understanding and properly grasp the existence of Chinese and Western differences in national character， can effectively help us in a timely manner to correct our own shortcomings and strengthen our own advantages and use of other's shortcomings to collapse of other's strengths.
2.3.3 the concept of collective
China's concept of collective a stronger emphasis on collective responsibility， Therefore the negotiations pattern basically is the collective， but to make the final decisions are a decisive one， and even the decisive one simply has not entered the stage. This is known as the cultural experts of "high from the right to culture"， in the event of difficult issues more complicated， the negotiators on the difficult decisions; and the Western culture of Jurists which was referred to as "low from the right to culture"， on the surface is one or two people out， negotiators have been given the appropriate permissions， or assisted in its decision-making think-tank， which in the negotiations， the sole responsibility of the negotiations were heavier， higher and more flexible.
2.3.4 the concept of time
Concept of time and how it decided the people's action plan for international business negotiations has a broad impact of the invisible. The daily negotiations behavior manifests observes the difference aspect of time may be is the most obvious results of the performance. Jewish businessmen attached great importance of time. They always believe that time is not money， time and goods， is the capital to make money. Money can borrow， but time can not be borrowed， the time is more valuable than money. A wealthy Jewish income of 200，000 US dollars monthly have been considered such an account: his daily wage is 8 1000 U.S dollars， then about 17 U.S. dollars per minute. If he had been disturbed and waste 5 minutes， then is the equivalent of stolen 85 U.S. dollars in cash. Strong concept of time improved the efficiency of the Jews， they are often at work in seconds and every second counts. On the Jewish people， never appear leave early， late， or to stall for time and so on. In the business activities of the Jews "Uninvited guest" is almost as the same as the “unwelcome person”， because uninvited guests will disrupt the timing of the original， and waste everybody's time. For the time extremely mean of the Jewish， in the time to discuss the concept of time is stronger. Before Jews in the negotiations， the time must have been agreement. They agreed not only in a certain period of a day， but also appointment "from the starting points to a few minutes to talk about." During the meeting， in addition to polite greetings outside， the Jews immediately to discuss business， this is have good manners and good performance， at the same time that mean respect of each other.
3. how to deal with the cultural differences on international business negotiations
Only recognize and accommodate cultural differences can take the whole process of negotiations in response to countermeasures， including before the negotiations that may arise cultural differences， correctly handle the cultural differences on negotiations， do a good job of follow-up for the exchange of cultural differences after negotiations.
3.1 before the negotiations to understand the cultural differences that may arise
It is essential to understand cultural differences before negotiations. Preparatory work for negotiations include: the background of negotiations and assessment of the situation， to verify the fact the negotiation process， the agenda， the best strategy options and concessions. The background of the negotiations also include the location， site layout， bargaining unit， the Senate on the number of listeners， the channels of communication and the time limit of negotiations. All these preparations must be taken into account possible of cultural differences. For example， the venue layout of cultural differences may have a slightly affected of the cooperation. In the culture of heavier hierarchy， if the room arrangement improper， more casually， it could lead to anxiety and even anger of the other side.
In addition， negotiations styles are due to culture differences. American culture tend to work together "to finalize an agreement"; and Japanese culture likes to talk with everyone separately， if everyone agrees， then arranges a broader scope discussion; the Russian people like a total approach， and one to talk about to settle an agreement， and then the front of the two parties invite a third party， so continue.
Time limit for the control of the negotiations is also very important. Different cultures have different concepts of time. Such as North America， the concept of time is a strong culture， for Americans， time is money. The culture of the Middle East and Latin America was relatively weak concept of time， in their view， time should be enjoyed. Thus， in international business negotiations， the concept of time differences should be prepared.
3.2 correct handling of cultural differences in the negotiations
First of all， the choice of language and use in the negotiations， for the Western countries， we must take the exchange-oriented approach， as simple clear as possible， and frank expression of his own ideas， not ambiguous and vague. For example， Americans like argued， language has a confrontational， drastic tone， they think that argued not only the right to express his personal views， but also conducive to problem-solving， divergent points of view will not affect the interpersonal relationships. In the oriental culture， in order to preserve the face sides of others， the face groups or other people's face， frequent use of ambiguous and indirect language. Even if they disagree with other's views， it's rare to be rejected or refuted directly， but rather tortuous statement of his views， or to show embarrassment. The values of "Harmony" is the Chinese people to create an atmosphere of harmony as an important means of negotiations， in the negotiating process， they try to avoid friction， and friendship first， they pursued by a permanent long-term friendship and cooperation.
Secondly， the method in the negotiations， to the United States as an example， as a result of the Oriental mode of thinking is the overall orientation， their use in the negotiations is that from the overall to local， descending from general to specific， that is， first reach a consensus of general principles， and then use this to guide specific programs to solve the problem. They do not have an obvious sequence of points， usually until the end of the negotiations， all issues will be made in concessions and commitments in order to reach an agreement. Due to the impact mode of thinking， Westerners analysis the most important things in their logical relationship between the re-specific than the whole， at the beginning of negotiations， they hurry to talk about the specific terms. Therefore， we often resolve the price， delivery， warranties and service contracts and other issues at times， solve each problem， there are concessions and commitments from start to finish， the final agreement is the sum of a series small agreements.
3.3 to do a good job of follow-up for the exchange of cultural differences after negotiations
Related to contract management and follow-up to the exchange of management behavior after negotiations， first as contract， in which the relationship between people-oriented countries such as China， to resolve their disputes often do not rely solely on the legal system， and often rely on the two sides relations. In these cultures， a written contract is very short， it mainly used to describe the respective responsibilities of business partners. Western countries such as the American culture， they generally will regard the contract signing ceremony as not only a waste of time but also a waste of money， so the contract is often signed by send mail. Exchange on the follow-up， the American cultural emphasis on the "distinction between people and things"， so they did not pay attention to follow-up exchanges. Oriental culture in countries such as Japan， keep the majority of the follow-up of foreign exchange customers as international business was an important part of the negotiations. They signed the contract after a long time， they will also carry out as letters， pictures， and exchange visits.
The above analysis of the cultural differences and their impact on international business negotiations， any business men engaged in cross-cultural activities should be highly priority. A cultural difference is an objective reality， the attitude of individuals or groups tend to determine the role of cultural differences， it can exaggerate the cultural differences and also reduce the barrier which causes the cultural difference to the lowest point. People in cross-cultural business negotiations， if able to overcome cultural barriers， to understand， do as the Romans do， learning to stand on other people's point to think， that we can promote mutual understanding and work together to adapt the two sides and create an economic and cultural environment， so that we can success.
4. References
【1】Cao Ling editor: "Business English negotiations，" Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press， 2004
【2】Xie Xiaoying editor: "Business English negotiations"， China Business Press， 2005
【3】Qiu Gejia，Yang Guojun editor: "win-win negotiations of modern business English"， China International Radio Press， 2006
【4】Weng Fengxiang edited: "An Introduction to International Business"， Tsinghua University Press / Beijing Jiao tong University Press， 2006
【5】William • Hampton with: "Jewish businessmen in business start-up experience and wisdom，" translated Zheng Ping， Harbin Publishing House， 2003
毕业英语论文范文范文二：商务英语论文范文
关键词：模糊语商务英语语用策略
商务英语论文范文〔 摘要〕由于语言的本质属性、商务活动的不确定性等原因, 商务英语要遵循的合作原则、礼貌原则, 需要使用模糊语言。使用模糊语言目的是探讨交际双方当事人如何顺应语境, 选择恰当的模糊语言来达到他们所追求的交际效果。在交际中模糊语用策略的使用, 受一定的语境及不同话题的限制, 有时出于礼貌, 使交谈双方继续保持友好关系; 有时为了相互尊重, 给彼此本论文由英语论文网www.51lunwen.org整理提供留点面子; 或者为了谈判双方共同的利益, 从而为谈判留有余地。
[ Abstract] Business English foll ows the p rinci p les of cooperati on and courtesy because of the essence of language and uncertainties of business activities, which results in the app licati on of vague language1 The pur pose of using vague language is t o exp l ore how the t wo parties comp lywith the context and choose app r op riate vague language t o achieve the desired communicative effect1 The app licati on of vague language is restricted by certain context and different t op ics : s ometi mes courtesy is needed t o continue t o maintain friendly relati ons ; s ometi mes res pect is needed t o save face, or leave room for further negotiati ons based on mutual benefits1
[ Key words] vague language; business English; p ragmatic p rinci p les
20世纪 20年代 , 著名的哲学家和数学家 B1 Russell就写出了有关 “ 含糊性 ”的论文。他认为所有的自然语言均是模糊的 , 比如 “ 红的 ”和 “老的 ”等概念没有明确的内涵和外延 , 因而是不明确的和模糊的。可是 , 在特定的环境中 , 人们用这些概念来描述某个具体对象时却又能心领神会 , 很少引起误解和歧义。1965年美国控制专家、数学家札德发表了 《模糊集合 》的论文 , 文中首次提出表达事物模糊性的重要概念: 隶属函数 , 从而突破了 19世纪末笛卡尔的经典集合理论 , 奠定模糊理论的基础。他明确指出: “模糊集合是其成员隶属度构成一个连续集的所有成员组成的一个类。 ”在传统集合论中 , 每一个集合的成员要么属于它 (隶属度为 1) , 要么不属于它 (本论文由英语论文网www.51lunwen.org整理提供隶属度为 0)。在札德看来 , 对现实的自然界中碰到的对象进行分类时 , 经常会找不到精确判定其资格的根据。他指出: “‘ 美人 ’或 ‘ 高个子 ’这些概念并不能构成一般数学意义上的类或集合。但事实上 , 这种不能精确划分的类在人类的思维中却起着重要的作用。 ”因此 , 札德认为各门学科 , 尤其是人文、社会学科及其它“ 软科学 ”都可以用模糊集合的方法来处理模糊现象 , 来研究模糊概念。模糊集合论适用于语言模糊性研究的一个根本原因在于语言范畴实际上就是某一个论域中的模糊集合。范畴的核心部分是范畴中所有成员共有的典型属性 (相当于集合的定义 ) , 是明确的; 但是范畴的边缘 (相当于集合的外延即组成该集合的所有元素 ) 却是模糊的 , 不能明确地加以确定。
一、商务英语中合作原则的运用内在要求利用语用模糊
美国语言学家 Grice认为在所有的语言交际活动中 , 说话人和听话人之间存在一种默契 , 一种双方都应遵守的原则 , 他称这种原则为会话的合作原则。合作原则这条根本原则可以具体体现为四条准则: 一是量的准则 (QuantityMax2i m) , 使自己所说的话达到交谈的现时目的所需求的详尽程度。不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。二是质的准则(QualityMaxi m )。不要说自己认为是不真实的话。不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。三是关系准则 (Relevant Maxi m ) ,说话要贴切 , 要有关联。四是方式准则 (MannerMaxi m ) ,避免晦涩的词语。避免歧义 , 说话要简要 , 话语要有条理。这四条准则中数量准则规定了我们说话时所传递的信息量 , 商务英语尤其要遵守这些原则: 商务活动非常讲究工作效率 , 注重实效 , 不浪费时间 , 一般直截了当地表达主题 ,所以要遵循量的准则。本论文由英语论文网www.51lunwen.org整理提供商务活动强调双方的合作必须真诚 ,真实是基础 , 否则交易活动难以为继 , 要求沟通要讲究质的准则。无论是商务谈判、商务文书还是商务广告中 , 话语必须和语境 (商品推销或服务 ) 具有最佳关联性 , 对象通过推理 , 明白了话语的 (隐含 ) 内容 , 才能采取行动。商务英语中数字的表达要求言之确凿 , 不能模棱两可; 商务活动的结果一般形诸法律文本 , 对双方都具有法律约束力 , 行文应该严谨。但这四条准则毕竟是几条约定俗成的规约 , 它们不同于严格的语言规则 , 并不是绝对不可违反的。从消极语用来分析 , 在商务活动中: 当交流者不能够准确表达含义时 , 例如: The sun is ablaze, the Wag on is humming nicely down theintestate1或当交流者不愿意明确表达含义时 , 例如: We areinterested in contracting a number of p r ominent manufacturers inBritain with a view t o choose lines suitable for the Spanishmarket1[ 1 ]这些情景在商务活动中经常发生 , 如果使用模糊语言 , 不仅会起到意想不到的效果 , 更重要的是关系主体能否遵从合作原则的内在要求。 从积极语用模糊来分析 , 可以从语境、商务活动发出信息的人和信息接受者三个角度进行探讨。首先 , 商务活动都有着较强的目的性、趋利性 , 然而在活动中存在较多的不确定性和风险性 , 往往形成商务活动的特殊语境 , 这种语境为商务活动中模糊语言的应用提供了载体 , 它是模糊语言发挥作用的场景 , 一旦模糊语言成为采用的一种语言策略 , 为了达到成功交际的目的 , 使用话语时就必须考虑语境因素。其次是商务的交流者 , 要顺应一系列的社会因素、心理因素及自然因素 , 在进行商务交流时 , 要顺应最基本的利益因素 ,因为商业本身就是由利益关系所驱动的。最后 , 信息接受者应该用最佳关联原则来理解商务交际中的模糊语言 , 根据Sperber &Wilson的观点 , 在交流过程中人们往往希望不费力气来实现最大的话语本论文由英语论文网www.51lunwen.org整理提供效果。关联指最佳关联而不是最大关联 , 也就是在劳动付出和所得之间找到最佳的切合点。积极语用模糊就是最佳关联的典型例子 , 当信息发出者表达他的观点时 , 接受人要根据语境来理解其真正意图。例如: Weare s orry t o say that your Price is out of line with the Prevailingmarket level1 We are obtaining the same quality thr ough otherchannels at a much l ower p rice1从中我们可以看出 , 收信人从这段文字中提取的信息不是其他渠道和价格的确切内容 , 而是写信人的言外之意: 即你方价格太高。在商务英语表达中模糊语言是一个十分普遍的现象 , 它存在于各类商务活动中 , 在不同表达中模糊语言的使用频率有所不同。分析表明 , 模糊语言更常见于坏消息和推销信函中 , 而在好消息和中性消息信函中相对少见。这主要由于好消息和中性消息仅仅是陈述事实 , 而坏消息和推销信函涉及各方利益。
二、商务英语中礼貌原则的运用需要发挥语用模糊的作用
在言语交际中 , 礼貌问题可以说是合作原则的一个部分 , 因为 Grice的合作原则只解释了话语的字面意义和它的实际意义的关系 , 解释了人们的 “ 言下之意 ”如何产生 , 如何理解; 但它没有说明为什么说话人要有意地违反合作原则来含蓄地表达自己的真意。Leech为这个问题找到了一个较为合理的答案: 那就是出自礼貌的考虑。于是 , 他更进一步提出 , 礼貌原则不再从属于合作原则 , 而与合作原则并重。礼貌原则共有六项准则 , 每项准则又有两条次准则: 一是得体准则 (TactMaxi m)。减少表达有损他人的观点。尽量少让别人吃亏; 尽量多使别人得益。二是慷慨准则 ( Gener osityMaxi m)。尽量少使自己得益; 尽量多让自己吃亏。3.赞誉准则 ( App robati onMaxi m )。尽量少贬低别人; 尽量多赞誉别人。4.谦逊准则 (ModestyMaxi m)。尽量少赞誉自己; 尽量多贬低自己。5.一致准则 (AgreementMaxi m)。尽量减少双方的分歧; 尽量增加双方的一致。6.同情准则 ( SympathyMaxi m)。尽量减少双方的反感; 尽量增加双方的同情[ 2 ]。在商务活动中参加交际活动的人都是理性经济人 , 即“ 一个具有面子需求的理性经济人 ” , 通俗些说就是社会商业组织中具有一定商业目的正常交际能力的人。这种典型人具有两种特殊的品质: 理性和面子。理性经济人首先具有商业“ 理性 ” , 不仅指交际双方能运用一定的模式进行实施推理的能力 , 而且还包括从商务交际的目标出发 , 确定达到这些目标所应运用的最佳手段的能力。其次理性经济人又是社会成员 , 具有面子观 , 所谓面子观即是每个社会成员意欲为自己挣得的那种在公众中个人形象 ( the public self - i mage) 与自己所在的组织的形象 ( the public organizati onal i mage) , 以及相应的一系列心理状态 , 它分为消极面子 ( negative face) 和积极面子 (positive face)。消极面子是指不希望别人强加于自己 , 自己的行为不受别人干涉阻碍。积极面子是希望得到别人的赞同、喜爱。只有具有面子和理性的典型人 , 才能使正常的交际得以顺利进行。Leech在合作原则、言内之义( sense) 和言外之意 ( force) 之间建立起来的礼貌原则的核心内容一一得体准则 ( Tact Maxi m )、谦逊准则 (ModestyMaxi m) 和一致准则 (AgreementMaxi m) 正是语用模糊巧妙运用其三者关系的体现[ 3 ]。在 Goffman“ 面子观 ”基础上建立的积极礼貌和消极礼貌也体现出语用模糊的积极性和消极性运用。Br own和 Levins on认为 , 许多言语行为本质上是威胁面子的 , 讲究礼貌就是要减轻某些交际行为给面子带来威胁。于是 , 提出了五种补救策略 , 依次为: 不使用补救策略、赤裸裸地公开施行面子威胁行为; 积极礼貌策略; 消极礼貌策略; 非公开地施行面子威胁行为; 不施行面子威胁行为[ 4 ]。模糊语的使用是体现双方遵守礼貌原则的重要手段之一。根据其定义 , 模糊语可以使话语更模糊即更委婉 , 更得体。按其功能分类来说 , 模糊语可以就话题的真实程度和涉及范围对话题内容做出修正 , 这种修正往往体现了礼貌原则中的得体、谦逊和一致等准则; 它还可以就话题的内容做主观的测度或提出客观的依据 , 对话题本论文由英语论文网www.51lunwen.org整理提供作间接的评估 , 这正体现了礼貌原则中的同情、慷慨和赞誉等准则。由于语用模糊的普遍 , 当我们说话人的模糊话语出于语言系统以外的考虑 , 语言便会显得更为委婉和间接。一些模糊语用技巧和沟通策略可以在我们日常的商务英语中充分应用 , 以达到和商业合作者或竞争者实现良好的沟通 , 维护自己的利益 , 实现自己和他人正面的社会价值 , 并避免自己的意图被对方轻易识破 ,维护自身的商业秘密和利益等目的。
三、语用模糊在商务英语语用中的策略
1.活用合作原则和自我保护策略。采用似乎和主题无关或模糊不清或概念不明而实际上又暗含明确条件的词句 , 往往可以使得对方难以防范 , 放松警惕 , 最终达到自己的目的。特别是在和对方商务谈判的过程中 , 谈判双方都遵循“ 实力政策 ”和 “利益驱动 ”的机制 , 运用各种谋略和计策 , 活用合作原则中的量、质的准则 , 或声东击西 , 或以辩作答。谈判语言的模糊性是由商务交际的战略和策略所决定的 , 这一特性是服务于交际者的目的和需要的。如: We cannot begin shi pp ing until Sep tember 21We will begin shi pp ing in early Sep tember1在我们日常的商务沟通和谈判中 , 一个基本的原则就是强调积极方面。告诉读者你能做什么 , 而非你不能做什本论文由英语论文网www.51lunwen.org整理提供么。第一句话听来就让人觉得在希望时间里进行有效率的运输目前是有问题。第二句表达从正面使用了语用模糊 , 既让人感觉到诚意又防止了意外 , 对于保护自己产生了积极作用。
2.用模糊限制语使语意模糊化 , 给商务活动留有空间。使用模糊限制语可以对语意进行变更 , 当事人遇到一些不确定的场合而主观无法判断 , 模糊限制语可以就话语的真实程度或涉及范围对话语的内容进行修正。这方面包括程度变动语和范围变动语 , 直接缓和语和间接缓和语。如果是对原话语意义做某种程度的修正的词语 , 即为 “程度变动语 ” , 如“ 有点儿 ” 、 “ 几乎 ” 、“ 相当 ” ; 给原话语定出一个变动范围的词语 , 即所谓的 “范围变动语 ” , 如 “大约 ” 、“左右 ” 。直接缓和语是说话者对话题直接猜测 , 或者表示说话者本人的犹豫态度 , 如 “ 我认为 ……” , 间接缓和语通过一些有根据 , 有来源的如 “ 根据 …… 所说 ” 。例如:Anyhow, I am afraid the i mp licati ons of these t wo items aresomewhat different1And I think we can p r obably justmake shi pment before June1As far as I can tell you right now, we start i mmediately1I caught the t welve s omething p lane1以上 3句话 , 说话者用 “Anyhow”“, s omewhat” , “Ithink” , “s omething”“, As far as I can”这些模糊限制语能够帮助他们体面地应付过去。 3.采取迂回战术 , 表达模糊 , 避免直言 , 讲究礼貌策略。如前所述话语的礼貌主要体现为对交际双方面子的关注 , 用来维护面子的策略有积极面子策略和消极面子策略。前者表现为抬高对方的积极面子 , 如夸奖对方、表示与对方具有共同点、用亲昵的方式称呼对方等。后者体现为缓和对方消极面子的威胁 , 表示不愿强加; 道歉; 由于涉外场合的制约 , 不宜正面回答的; 为了避免不利形势的出现 , 交际人员常常需要回避直言。 如: Do drop r ound and visit us s ometi me1Thank you, Iwould l ove t o1主人表示的 “邀请 ”是模糊的 , 它没明确的日期和时间 , 这样的表达方式照顾了听者做出选择时可能有的困难;也使得听话人做出拒绝的选择时不使说话人处于窘境。说话者采用了宽宏准则邀请听者访问 , 而且模糊词 “s ometi me”的使用 , 维护了听者的消极面子。又如: That’s t oo high! It will be difficult for us t o makeany sales1But I believe we’l. have a hard ti me convincing our clientsat your p rice1根据句意 , 表明对方价格太高 , 无法接受。但说话者并未使用 “i mpossible”之类的绝对字眼 , 取而代之的是 “dif2ficult” , “hard ti me”等模糊词语 , 说话者强调很难接受太高的价格 , 表明己方的立场 , 同时 , 又为后续的谈判留有余地 , 不至于用 “ 不可能 ”这样的字眼将谈判逼进死胡同。4.表达受权有本论文由英语论文网www.51lunwen.org整理提供限, 不做明确表态。一般地商务谈判双方在利益上是对立性的, 但在语言表达上双方都表现得非常友好, 因此, 当事人有必要有所保留[5 ], 运用模糊语言, 尤其是当当事人遇到一些敏感问题, 由于身份或者场合的关系无法明确表态时, 常常可以借助一些模糊表达加以处理。例如:As far as I’m concerned, we do1 But of course I have t ocheck with my boss first1总的来说 , 说话者是否真的和老板商量过 , 我们不知道。但这确实是一种受权限制的表现 , 说话者通过这种策略 , 给自己更多的时间去考虑这笔交易。最后 , 他可以以此为借口拒绝对方的要求 , 却不会损害彼此的面子。又如: To be honest, the p r oblem you put for ward maybes olved if I have the final1 But I am sorry I can’t decide1说话者直接把决定权转嫁给上级 , 表达受权有限 , 无法解决对方提出的问题。做出假设 , 如果自己有足够的权力就能帮助对方解决问题。
四、结语
综上所述 , 一般地商务英语要遵循合作原则、礼貌原则 , 但由于语言的本质属性、商务活动的不确定性等原因 ,合作原则中的准则需要灵活运用 , 不宜照搬 , 要使用模糊语言进行处理 , 而商务活动中礼貌原则的运用需要发挥模糊语言的作用。总的来说 , 双方为了顺利实现交际意图而故意使用模糊语言的情况 , 目的是探讨双方当事人如何顺应语境 ,选择恰当的模糊语言来达到他们所追求的交际效果。在商务英语交际中模糊语用策略: 有时出于礼貌 , 使交谈双本论文由英语论文网www.51lunwen.org整理提供方继续保持友好关系; 有时为了相互尊重 , 给彼此留点面子; 或者为了谈判双方共同的利益 , 从而为谈判留有余地; 有时是受权有限 , 把决定权留给上级。模糊语言的使用 , 要受一定的语境及不同话题的限制。
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